The Stroop Effect.

The phenomenon The Stroop Effect first discovered by American psychologist John Ridley Stroop is where the brains reaction time slows down when processing conflicting information. This happens because of interference or the use of incompatible functions in the brain causing the decreased reaction time within the brain.

This phenomenon is usually studied with a stroop test where a researcher first takes note of how long a participant takes to say the name of a colour printed in black or grey ink. For example if they see the word ''yellow'' printed in either black or grey ink then they would say ''yellow''. Then secondly the researcher takes note of how long it takes the participant to say the name of another name of a colour but this time it would be printed in another colour that's not consistent with the word itself. For example if the word is green and it is printed in orange  then they would have to say ''green'' and not what colour it is printed in. Usually the second part of this test is much trickier and many people makes mistakes because they are presented with conflicting information.


An example of a Stroop test

Uses of the Stroop test
The Stroop test has been used to measure a variety of things in regards to people. Researchers have used the Stroop test to measure...

- How well a persons selective attention is

- How well a person can multi-task (similar to the previous point)

- Tests for disorders such as schizophrenia, ADHD, ADD etc

-  Brain activity to see what areas of the brain are functioning in respects to focus and attention.

- Colour recognition

- How well a persons brains processing speed is


Variations of the Stroop effect
There are other variants to the Stroop test all producing a similar effect such as...

Emotional Stroop tests

Another variant of the Stroop test is where a researcher may show a participant a card with a negative word such as sad, hurt or unlucky mixed in with other neutral words such look, press or write. Again the words are coloured and the researcher takes note of if the participant says the negative words faster or slower than the neutral words. It has been shown that depressed participants are more likely to say the colour of a negative word slower than they would if it was a neutral word.

Warped words

This produces the same effect much like the original Stroop effect where the words again are the names of colours and are presented in an unusual way printed in mismatching colours. The participants are asked to name the colour of the word presented but because the words are printed in an unusual way and are incongruent with the colours they are typed in this slows down the brains reaction and processing time making it difficult to complete the task as easily and straight forward as they normally would.

Reverse Stroop tests

Again similar to the original Stroop test but the participant is presented with a black square with the name of a colour printed in the middle but it is printed with in a colour inconsistent with the printed word, for example the word blue will be printed in red. The black square will have four smaller squares in each corner and each of the smaller squares would be a different colour. The researchers would ask the participants to point to one of the smaller squares that is the same colour as the printed word in the middle, for example they would point at the red box because the word printed is in red but unsurprisingly enough participant do actually get this wrong. The effects of this test is very similar if not the same as the original Stroop test causing slower reaction and processing time.

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The mere exposure effect: You may have seen it before.

In psychology the phenomenon known as the mere exposure effect first identified by Robert Zanjoc in 1968 is when an unfamiliar object you either dislike or feel indifference towards becomes familiar and something you grow to feel favourably towards because of repeat exposure. So in essence, the more you see, hear or taste something the more you like it. Humans like comfort and familiarity, and when faced with a choice between two opposing options for example such as buying shoe's from a well known brand versus buying shoe's from a new unknown brand, nine times out of ten you will choose the shoe's from the brand you know and are familiar with because of previous exposure. This goes to show that the comfort and familiarity that came with the known brand is key when it came to choosing between these two options, because what people are mainly looking for when making a choice similar to this one in question is whether or not it is a brand they can trust, and for the most part comfort and familiarity builds trust. 

Advertising
Advertising is notorious for using the mere exposure effect, when a company releases a new product their marketing campaign makes the use of bill boards, posters, television adverts, newspaper adverts, magazine adverts.... you name it. This gives this new product a sense of omnipresence when you add it all up but the real intention behind this is to get it noticed at least once a day so when you do finally come across this new product in the shop you feel a sense of familiarity towards it, this is because of the repeated exposure and now are that much more likely to purchase it. The use of trailers for movies are also a form of the mere exposure effect, by giving you a small sample of the movie you become aware of it, then with enough repeat exposures you become familiar with it and may decide to go out and watch it because you've begun to favour it more and more over time. Lastly music is unmistakeably something that commonly uses the mere exposure effect as a tool, at some point you may have decided you didn't like a piece of music or a tune based on your initial impression of it but after hearing it a few times on the radio and seeing a promotional advert of it on television a couple of times then even hear your friends talk about it which evokes social proof, you slowly come round to deciding that you want to know what the fuss is about and may even go out your way to listen to it and even purchase a copy. Quite effective.

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An experiment conducted by social psychology pioneer Robert Zajonc in 1968 involving him showing a group of American participants images of a selection of Chinese characters varying different exposures up to 25 times then questioning the participants about what they saw asking how favourably they felt to each character that was shown. Keeping in mind that each character had no initial meaning to each of the American participants, the results were that the characters that were rated favourably and had more positive connotations were shown more frequently than the others which were shown less frequently. Zajonc concluded that the extra favourability some of the Chinese characters received was because of the familiarity gained by each repeated exposure.

Human relationships

The mere exposure effect is prevalent in human relationships, similar to how advertising works; the more time spent with someone or even just seeing an individual the more likely you are to form a positive opinion about them. This is provided that they haven't done anything overly negative. There are many situations where being in close proximity to someone increases the likelihood of being favourable to a person or a group of people through repeated exposure where you otherwise would not have in a one off situation. These situations would include college dorms, holidays where you would be staying for a period of time, your local supermarket, the gym, your workplace, your local bar... the list is endless. This principle goes for attraction in human relationships also, the feeling of liking increases the chances of someone being a potential partner (think people who date people at their workplace) because of their positive opinion of them as a result of repeated exposure and due to this we find we can be comfortable around them, and as people we are attracted to things we feel we are comfortable with. 

An unusual experiment regarding the mere exposure effect was carried out by Professor Charles Geotzinger in 1968 in his classroom at Oregon State University where he had a mystery student attend one of the professors classes for two months in a black bin bag with only his bare feet showing, this occurred every Monday, Wednesday and Friday at 11:00 am with the student sitting at the back of the classroom. None of the 20 students that attended his class knew the identity of this mystery student. To begin with the students showed hostility towards the person in the black bag, and then over time this changed to curiosity, then some time after that the students eventually showed a positive attitude and developed a friendship with this mystery student.

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The confirmation bias and seeing only what you want to see.

Being in a world where there is conflicting information can make it a difficult job to make sense of things, and because of this we have a need to filter out information so we don't overload our heads with conflicting thoughts causing confusion. Our need to make sense of things on the other hand can also be a hindrance when we go too far the other end by fixating on one idea and only excepting information supporting this idea whilst ignoring everything else even though it may discredit your original decision for a good reason... this is what we call the confirmation bias. 

The confirmation bias can be thought of as a self fulfilling prophecy where because you expect something to turn out in a particular fashion where you end up interpreting all signs confirming your expectations correct whilst disregarding evidence that proves those same expectations invalid. In extreme cases some may reinterpret contrary evidence as further evidence to their expectation/argument. For example when an acquaintance who you've made your mind up as someone who is generally unpleasant gives you an unexpected compliment which they genuinely mean well by, you may interpret it as sarcasm or a subtle dig at you, either way you perceive this compliment negatively because that's what you expect from this person no matter how genuine it came across.

What it really comes down to is expectations, and your expectations can shape your perceptions thus confirming your expectations, your a trapped in a loop if you will. Robert Anston speaks about this in his book Prometheus Rising , in his own words he writes ''what the thinker thinks, the prover proves''. He also gives an example in his book that if the thinker thinks that the sun moves around the Earth then the prover will organize perceptions to fit that thought; if the thinker then changed its mind then the prover will reorganize all evidence to again fit that perception.

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A couple of examples where the confirmation bias can be recognised are..

Stereotypes: Stereotypes is what the confirmation bias is in essence, as a type of individual has certain expectations set upon them and anything someone from this group does that seemingly relates to those expectations confirms the stereotype that is set upon them, even if it is out of character for them.


The media: The media can often be used to propagate the confirmation bias by using selective images, sound bites or carefully chosen stories to further confirm an idea which is already believed by many people. It is believed some ideas are fabricated to further other agenda's.


Self image: Your self image is something that can be reinforced by your experiences. If you see yourself as someone who is well natured of course you will do good natured things accordingly and while this happens people may take notice and act positively towards you and even tell you how good natured you are thus strengthening your self image as a good natured person.


Study by Peter Wason
A british psychologist named Peter Wason who coined the term confirmation bias in the 1960's conducted a psychology experiment to test his theory where he gave a group of people a triplet set of numbers ''2-4-6''. The task was to identify the rule that applied to the three numbers and for the subjects to find the rule. Wason instructed that they may construct other triplet sets of numbers to test out their assumptions regarding the first triplet; for every triple set of numbers the experimenter would tell them whether or not it followed the rule. The subjects formed a hypothesis that the rule was a sequence of even numbers and tried numbers that followed this rule such as ''4-8-10'', ''6-8-12'', ''20-22-24'' which the experimenters confirmed to them that each of these numbers obeyed the rule, as each triplet was given a positive confirmation the subjects felt more confident about their hypothesis that the rule was even numbers, not long after a few more tries they were convinced that they found they rule they were looking for.

It turned out the subjects were incorrect and had not discovered the rule to the original sequence, the rule was simply increasing numbers. Almost all the subjects that were involved in this experiment formed a similar hypothesis and formed number sequences that proved their hypothesis while very few asked questions or tried to form number sequences that may disprove their hypothesis. They only confirmed what they believed was true. 

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Fear psychology

What is fear?
Fear is an emotional response towards something which can pose a potential threat alerting us to danger. The threat can be towards ones physical well being or the threat can be towards ones social standing, both can be experienced as very real and result with the urge to withdraw away from the object of endangerment.

When someone experiences fear not only is there a negative emotional response, the response is also physical which includes sweating, heightened adrenaline levels and an increased heart rate, this is a fight or flight response which is triggered where the body prepares itself to flee or combat. What has just been described in regards to the physical aspect of fear is called a biochemical reaction; it is likely an evolutionary development from before the early prehistoric human ages to protect and aid in survival against other species, predators and other hazards posing a potential threat.

The emotional aspect of fear naturally alters from person to person as some people are better at handling fear than others even welcoming it while others have severe negative reactions in the presence of fear causing them to avoid any fear inducing situation at all costs though most people are somewhere in the middle.

Phobias
A phobia is a persistent fear of an object or an event which causes the sufferer to go to extreme lengths to avoid all possible interactions with the perceived problem. Though there has not been an official explanation as to how phobias develop many psychologists have said that people develop phobias through a mixture of genetic dispositions with a mix of environmental and social causes.


There are three separate types of phobias:

Specific or simple phobias.
This type of phobia is in reaction to objects such as heavy machinery or knives, animals like spiders, snakes or dogs and specific situations flying, using elevators and being in or near large vehicles. This doesn't normally interfere with their everyday life as  either they rarely encounter their fear or they finds ways to avoid it.

Social phobia.
This is a fear of social situations whether it involves going to get-togethers, parties even being in public such as something simple as going to the shops and high street. This fear stems from a fear of criticism and sometimes interpret other peoples actions as attempts to humiliate them and can over think conversations long after they've taken place.

Agoraphobia.
This a fear of open spaces where the sufferer avoids places and situations where they feel escape would be difficult in case an attack occurs, this can be anywhere from the grocery store to a park to a walk path. The agoraphobic feels safe in very few places , usually they mostly feel safe at home.



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Anxieties.
Similar to phobias as they aren't specific to any particular situation they are an irrational fear which can cause the sufferer top seek avoidance away from an object or situation regarding the phobia. Anxiety at its worst can result in just the thought of the object of fear can send the sufferer into a wild sense of terror, it is usually the imagining of the situation which gets blown out of proportion which sends the sufferer into a loop of picturing the worst case scenario even if it seems unlikely. This keeps the sufferer on guard in case of a ''possible situation''. People who are highly reactive in nature are more likely to suffer from anxieties but as they are extra cautious about everything this makes them well prepared and attentive towards people. Their extra sense of worry can manifest itself in being conscientious at their work or being well prepared for an exam even remembering minor details in booking a holiday, their ability to keep in mind every possible scenario keeps them on top of the most mundane tasks.

Ways fear can be treated
Fears can be treated over a period of over time though it may take longer to treat  and sometimes recovery can be near instant but this is depending on the person themselves and fear that is being dealt with. Here are a couple of the most common methods of treatment mainly use in a therapeutic setting.. 
 
Systematic desensitization
Developed be South African psychiatrist Joseph Wolpe, systematic desensitization is a form of classical conditioning therapy where the sufferer is exposed to a succession of circumstances involving the sufferers phobia whilst being in a relaxed state. During this process the patient is first taught some relaxation techniques so that they may extinguish fear and anxiety once it arises in the face of their own personal anxiety or phobia, this may include visualisations, breathing exercises, muscle relaxation exercises etc

Once the patient has learnt these techniques the individual will then be told to use them to help overcome a series of progressive exposures starting from a relatively small fear which will be related top the phobia or anxiety, then next being exposed to a bigger fear which will still be related to the initial phobia laddering all the way up to the target fear. For instance if the patient has a fear of spiders he or she will first be shown a picture of a spider, then a toy spider, then after some sufficient time the patient will be shown a see through box with a spider in it, then that same box will be shown with the lid open, then after some time the patient will put his or her hand in the box, then the patient will touch the spider, then lastly the patient will pick up and hold the spider. By the end of it all the incremental jumps leading to the fear itself will be associated with the relaxation techniques used making the patient desensitized to the phobia or anxiety and eventually the negative emotions attached to the phobia will be extinguished.

Flooding

Invented by psychologist Thomas Stampfl flooding sometimes referred to as exposure therapy is a faster method than systematic desensitization though not always as effective, this method involves putting the person in a situation where they would have to face their phobia at its extreme, again using similar relaxation techniques as stated above attempting to replace the feeling of fear with the feeling of relaxation. Using the example of 
the patient having a phobia of spiders, using flooding the patient maybe told instantly to hold the spider in their hand for a period of time whilst using relaxation exercises such as muscle relaxation exercises, breathing exercises, visualisations etc until they begin to feel at ease. The experience itself can be stressful to the patient but can help them snap out of their self-created negative associations towards their phobia and may well be necessary if the phobia is interfering with their life. This method is not typically for every individual and the therapist usually interviews their patient to determine whether to use flooding on them as sometimes the individual is not prepared to endure that level of anxiety in one go.

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Psychology of the human touch at an early age.

An important factor in growth and development. Similar to food, water and air, the human touch is another one of our basic needs as we have a constant desire to be connected with others. This is a innate need originates from within the womb and being the first sense we develop from 8 weeks inside the warm confines of the womb it can become apparent that physical touch is a vital part of our lives and we need it to survive, interact with our surroundings and stimulate growth.

What happens if we do not develop touch early on
If touch is not developed early on especially the first six months after birth the new born can suffer from physiological consequences such as being underweight, the immune system would not be fully developed and this can make the child more vulnerable to diseases and the child would be sick more consistently and generally be undernourished, brain development will be affected also giving the infant an increased level of cortisol which is a stress hormone which in large amounts can damage the hippocampus, the part of the brain involved with memory and learning. In worst case scenarios where the child has been extensively deprived of physical touch the child can actually die. 

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Bonding
An article in the Scientific American explains that children who suffer from deprivation of touch early on have altered levels of oxytocin (a hormone present in breast milk) and vasepressin which are deemed important in social bonding. In regards to mother and infant bonding touch is key, the very act of breast feeding has bonding elements to it, the close loving touch, the warm embrace, eye contact and even the smell of the mothers body and clothes strengthen bonding as it all relates to physical closeness. Research shows that infants smile more when in physical contact than an other interaction including a parent and child and similarly the parent of smiles a lot more also in kind. Contrary, lack of bonding and attachment in an adults early life results in the said adult being emotionally withdrawn, angry, upset, cold, often depressed and overall an unsociable individual.

Growth and health.
Touch is vital for human development, failing to actively take care of this results in a failure to thrive in their surrounding environment and the ability to properly grow. Young infants and babies who are not touched also have a lack of growth hormone and as a result of this it can stunt a child's growth, this transcends also to a child's immune system where their bodies are more likely to struggle against diseases making them more likely to contract illnesses.

Prevention is better than cure
Human contact should be at abundance in the early life of a baby and not restricted to not just the mother but the father should get involved as well, though fathers tend not to get involved as much they should be encouraged to share physical contact so the baby is overall more relaxed and secure due to the bonding process as a family unit as opposed to just having one source of regular human contact, i.e. only the mother. Touch between the mother and father can promote healthy bonding ensuring the infant develop and grow better psychologically and socially later in life. 

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Colours: Their affects and associations.

Colours have the ability to affect moods, feelings and emotions. They also serve as a good tool to set a context to signal and communicate with, they have the ability to cause not only a psychological reaction but they can be physiological as well. It is no secret that interior decorators, artists, photo editors and anything of the like know the power of being particularly selective with what colours they choose for their work, choosing the right colour will help you create the effect you want whether you want them to take action, associate feelings such as nostalgia, excitement and calmness even cause physiological reactions such as increase your metabolism.

Keep in mind that though the meaning of some colours are universal, colours also have their own subjective meaning to each individual and may cause a reaction to one person whilst not doing anything to another. This goes for cultures also, for instance while red may mean stop in western cultures but in India it means purity and in China it means celebration and good luck. Each culture is different.

 This post will explore some of the most commonly used colours and the effects they have on people while discussing how they are used which in turn will help us understand the intended emotional information that is conveyed.


Red 
Associated with...
Positive: Excitement, lust, blood, heat, warmth, love, stimulation, passion, strength.

Negative: Anger, aggressiveness, strain, danger, intense pain.

Red being quite a powerful colour it has the tendency to easily grab our attention, hence the its use in traffic lights and stop signs. Because of the intensity of the colour its effect on us is physical, it stimulates and energizes us by increasing the pulse and heart rate, it has been said to be popular in restaurants because it increases your metabolism making you hungry. It also has a way of exciting and can be seen as quite an aggressive colour.


Blue
Associated with..
Positive: Intelligence, relaxing, reflection, calm, stability, peace, clearness. 

Negative: Cold, Aloofness, indifference, anxiety, illness, unemotional.

A calming colour, as opposed to red where it is physically exciting, blue has a mentally soothing effect and is known to suppress hunger which is why you never see many foods that are the colour blue (apart from blue berries of course), because of this very reason weight loss plans normally have a blue theme and  may even sometimes suggest eating meals off of a blue plate. The relaxing nature of blue slows down the heart rate, slowing down your pulse and lower body temperature.


Green
Associated with...
Positive: Balance, harmony, peace, nature, health.

Negative: Bland, jealousy, envy, boredom.

Known to be the colour that represents balance green is mostly associated with nature, similar to blue in the way it is calming and reassuring. The world around us has a lot of green which is a signal of abundance of resources (vegetables, food, trees for wood etc.) so on a primitive level green tells us we are safe. Green because of its connection with nature is often associated with nature.


Yellow
Associated with...
Positive: Joy, fun, extroversion, optimism, playfulness.

Negative: hazard, fear, anxiety.

A joyful colour, yellow is a colour which stimulates though too much of it can rub people up the wrong way. Often associated with warm weather and the summer days the right shade of yellow can give you the feeling of nostalgia and memories of a hot day. Yellow being a stimulating colour can create feelings of irritation, people have known to have more arguments in a yellow room while babies cry and get upset in a yellow room also.


Purple
Associated with...

Positive: Wealth, Royalty, imagination, spirituality, creativity, inspiration.

Negative: Arrogance, immature, corrupt, pompous, aloof.

This sometimes unusual colour associated with royalty and wealth purple is said to stimulate imagination and inspiration which explains why people have been known to meditate in purple coloured rooms. Though too much of it can be overpowering purple has been known to be mysterious and has an elegant feel to it, also a color a lot of horoscopes use to maybe increase that mysterious factor. 


Orange
Associated with...

Positive: Comfort, warmth, passion, spontaneity, sensuality.

Negative: Immaturity, frustration, annoyance.

A warm colour and is also stimulating, it seems to combine the effect of red and yellow giving it a way of not only stimulating the appetite, it has an impact on you mentally also. With the right shade it can be flamboyant and stimulates socializing making you feel energized, the associations with orange are often the feeling of being uplifted and positive. A very ''confident'' colour if you like.


Pink
Associated with...

Positive: Feminine, soothing, relaxing, love, sexuality, sensuality.

Negative: Weakness, emasculation, immaturity.

There's no mistaking that this is a very feminine colour, very soothing to the eyes and interestingly enough pink is the only tint of a primary colour with its own name ( light green is still green, light yellow is still yellow though light red is pink). Because of the initial red with in this colour, pink raises the heart beat, respiration and blood pressure. Pink has been used in prison cells to soothe and reduce bad behaviour.


Grey
Associated with..

Positive: Conservative, neutral, mature, solid, formal.

Negative: Dull, boring, unconfident, lifeless, indifferent.

Usually quite a dull color grey is a very neutral and an of all the colours this is the one which doesn't have any psychological effects to it. Very conservative and doesn't impose itself in any way and is very good at just staying in the background.


Brown
Associated with..

Positive: Warmth, nature, relaxed, sincere, strength, stable.

Negative: Boring, dull, predictable frugal.

Having a similar neutrality as grey brown has a more comforting feel, it is very relaxing and even reassuring this due to nature having a lot of brown in and this can have a give a warm, earthy natural feel towards it. Mentally, brown has a very stabilizing effect and is usual associated with being ''down to earth''.


Black
Associated with..

Positive: Sophistication, power, secrecy, mystery, seductive, formal.

Negative: Coldness, aloof, seriousness, with holding.

A very powerful colour, associated with power, elegance and control. Black is essentially all colours absorbed and the absence of light, in the right context black can evoke strong emotions and can be somewhat overwhelming but on the other end of the scale because of its absorbing nature it can provide a sort of emptiness. Black also has an negative association with death because of its nature of being essentially nothingness.


White
Associated with...

Positive: Cleanliness, clarity, pureness, new beginnings, hygiene, mental clarity.

Negative: Bland, coldness, nothingness. 

Visually white can be seen as pure and clean because of how it reflects light so easily. Often associated with hygiene and cleanliness hospitals are notorious for using this colour as anything that lands on white clothing is instantly noticeable. White psychologically has a way of encouraging us to reduce clutter and clear or purify thoughts also. 

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3 quick facts about memory.

Ever wondered about the workings of your memory? Thought about how it operates? How we use it from day to day?

Our memory is something we take for granted, though we use for pretty much everything we do, we often don't know how it actually works. Similar to being able to drive a car everywhere but not knowing how it runs in the first place. Unsurprisingly the memory is complex and involves several parts of the brain when in use. Some memories can be rich and long lasting while others can be insignificant and brief, but overall memories are what makes us who we are.

This post will go over some different aspects in regards to memory to help give you a better understanding of its inner workings.

Smell... a powerful trigger

Sometimes underestimated, smell can be a very powerful memory trigger. The olfactory nerve responsible for the sensation of smell is located close to and has access to the amygdala, the area of the brain that is activated when experiencing emotion and emotional memory. The same nerve is located near the hippocampus, responsible for associative learning, meaning smells only trigger memories when linked to an event, person or thing not just for the smell itself. For instance when you smell a barbecue you think of the summer or a  garden party in the hot weather. You don't smell something and think of just the smell itself its always associated with something else, a form of classical conditioning in itself. This explains how a lot of smells induce nostalgia as a lot of those associations were first made at a young age. 

Doorways and memory
Something we've all been through at some time or another, you've set out to do a task and you need something from the next room, and as soon as you walk through the doorway.... Poof! You've forgotten what it is you were supposed to do in the first place. What happened? Well apparently according to Gabriel Radvansky it wasn't spontaneous amnesia, it wasn't old age and it definitely wasn't aliens. It was actually just the mere act of walking through the door way that was the culprit. His research discovered that we compartmentalise our memories by physical location, meaning that in one room you may want to get your favourite book to read but as soon as your enter another room that same thought is a lot harder to access. He conducted research by having students examine a box containing red cubes and blue spheres which then after the students had to recall what were in the boxes after walking through a doorway. The results were very astounding. He wound up calling doorways thought erasers. Go figure.

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Sensory memory
Sensory memory is the shortest kind of memory, it is a short term buffer which the sensory memory store information before any cognitive processes take place. The stimuli picked up by the senses can be discarded if not paid attention to quick enough otherwise they can be stored within the sensory memory. Sensory memory is a tool used to keep aware of one thing whilst being openly aware of the wider surroundings. 

Iconic store: This is where visual image are stored for a very short time within the sensory memory. George Sperling, an American cognitive scientist found that visual memory last for around half a second.

Echoic store: This is where auditory sounds are stored for a short time within the sensory memory. Echoic memory can last from around 250 milliseconds to a couple of secounds.

Haptic memory: This is where physical sensations and muscle tension are store in the sensory memory.

Be quick to notice any quick or slight sensory cues, if not your sensory memory being very short will discard them quickly.

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